Epistemology, derived from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (study or discourse), refers to the branch of philosophy that examines knowledge’s nature, origins, and scope. It explores fundamental questions about acquiring, validating, and applying knowledge. In the Islamic tradition, epistemology extends beyond the material and empirical realms, incorporating naqli (revealed) knowledge from divine sources and aqli (rational) knowledge from human reasoning. This integration forms the foundation of Islamic applied epistemology, a framework that seeks to harmonise these dimensions to guide education and societal development.
Professor Emeritus Datuk Dr. Osman Bakar, a renowned scholar of Islamic philosophy and the seventh Rector of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), has extensively contributed to this field. With a doctorate in Islamic philosophy from Temple University, Philadelphia, USA, and decades of academic leadership, Prof. Osman has shaped contemporary discourse on Islamic thought and education. He previously held the Al-Ghazali Chair of Epistemology and Civilizational Studies at the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), IIUM. Recognised as one of the world’s 500 most influential Muslims in 2009, Prof. Osman is widely respected for his work in integrating Islamic principles with modern challenges.
In his essay “Defining the Core Identity of a 21st-Century Islamic University,” featured in The Muslim 500 (2025 edition), Prof. Osman articulates a transformative vision for Islamic universities centred on institutional values, epistemological teachings, and ethics. This article explores how these principles can be applied to medical education—specifically MBBS and clinical specialist training—and to foster a nurturing environment for lecturers in the Kulliyyah of Medicine. By embedding these principles, Islamic applied epistemology can bridge the gaps left by modern secular medicine, ensuring a holistic approach that addresses spiritual, ethical, and professional dimensions.
Institutional Values in Medical Training
Institutional values are the foundation of any educational system, guiding its governance, leadership, and broader mission. In medical training, Islamic principles offer a clear framework for cultivating unity, purpose, and holistic development.
Medical schools can adopt a tawhidic approach to governance rooted in the Islamic principle of divine unity. Inspired by Ibn Khaldun’s “moderate size” theory, institutions must manage growth carefully to maintain governance quality and personalised education. Leadership models should emphasise collaboration, inclusivity, and mutual respect, creating an environment where students, faculty, and staff thrive collectively.
Graduates from these programmes must embody technical skills, ethical values, and compassion. Islamic principles frame leadership in healthcare as a sacred trust, requiring sincerity (ikhlas) and accountability to Allah. This perspective fosters a sense of responsibility in graduates to serve humanity while maintaining their spiritual integrity.
Epistemological Teachings in Medical Education
Islamic applied epistemology integrates naqli and aqli knowledge, offering a holistic and balanced framework for education. Prof. Osman Bakar identifies seven key functions of Islamic epistemology, all of which have direct applications to medical education:
Philosophy and Curriculum Design:
Medical education can integrate Islamic perspectives on health, illness, and healing alongside biomedical sciences. MBBS programmes could include modules on spirituality in medicine, the contributions of Islamic scholars to healthcare, and ethical practices rooted in Islamic law. Specialist training can incorporate discussions on maqasid al-shariah (objectives of Islamic law) in clinical decision-making.
Epistemologies of Disciplines:
Faculties can define the foundations of medical disciplines while incorporating Islamic teachings. For instance, courses in clinical ethics can address Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), while public health modules can explore community well-being through an Islamic lens.
Tawhidic Vision for Academic Programmes:
Academic programmes aligned with tawhidic principles integrate physical, emotional, and spiritual dimensions in patient care. This vision ensures rational and efficient academic governance while addressing patients’ holistic needs.
Balanced Curriculum Between Fard ‘Ayn and Fard Kifayah Knowledge:
Programmes should balance fard ‘ayn knowledge, such as spirituality and moral decision-making, with fard kifayah knowledge, including clinical skills, diagnostics, and research.
Balanced Curriculum Between Perennial and Ephemeral Knowledge:
Curricula should blend timeless Islamic principles of justice, compassion, and humility with cutting-edge advancements in modern medicine, such as AI-driven diagnostics and genomics.
Serving as a Source of Intellectual Values:
Islamic epistemology instils intellectual virtues like truthfulness, rationality, and objectivity in students and faculty. This culture encourages ethical inquiry and prioritises societal benefits in medical research.
Serving as a Source of Research Values:
Islamic principles guide the development of ethical research practices, ensuring outcomes align with the needs of society. For example, emerging technologies like precision medicine or AI can be evaluated within an Islamic ethical framework.
Ethical Responsibilities in Medical Education
Ethics is central to Islamic applied epistemology, shaping how knowledge is created, disseminated, and applied. These ethical principles address three key areas in medical education:
Ethics in Knowledge Creation and Dissemination:
Educational and research activities must adhere to Islamic ethical principles, including beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Community service projects integrated into training reinforce these principles, helping students internalise their ethical responsibilities.
Source of Professional Ethics:
Professional ethics should be a cornerstone of training. Students and lecturers must embody compassion, integrity, and accountability, ensuring ethical principles guide clinical practice and research.
Value of Ethical Knowledge:
Modern curricula often sideline ethics in favour of technical training. Reflective practice sessions and case-based discussions can equip students to navigate ethical dilemmas with moral clarity, ensuring that their decisions align with both Islamic values and clinical standards.
Nurturing Lecturers in the Kulliyyah of Medicine
A successful transformation of medical education requires an environment that nurtures lecturers intellectually and spiritually. Opportunities for advanced studies in Islamic epistemology, bioethics, and integrative health approaches can deepen their expertise. Collaborative research projects between lecturers and Islamic scholars can explore topics like public health, mental health, and environmental health from an Islamic perspective.
Leadership training rooted in tawhidic principles equips lecturers to mentor students effectively, fostering a culture of collaboration and mutual support (ta’awun). This reduces competitiveness and aligns the institutional environment with Islamic teachings, creating a faculty dedicated to holistic education.
Why Modern Medicine Falls Short
While secular medicine has achieved remarkable technological progress, it often fails to address the holistic framework offered by Islamic applied epistemology. Secular frameworks emphasise materialism over holism, focusing on physical health while neglecting emotional, spiritual, and social dimensions. This fragmented approach can lead to inadequate patient care.
Moreover, secular medical systems lack divine accountability, prioritising professional obligations to institutions or legal systems over the Creator. Ethical considerations are frequently treated as secondary to technical expertise, while market-driven approaches reduce healthcare to a transactional relationship. Islamic applied epistemology provides an alternative, emphasising equity, compassion, and accessibility as essential elements of healthcare.
A Path Forward
Integrating Islamic applied epistemology into medical education offers a holistic framework that aligns technical advancement with ethical and spiritual integrity. By embedding these principles into MBBS and specialist training, healthcare professionals can be nurtured who excel in both competency and compassion. Additionally, fostering a supportive environment for lecturers ensures the sustainability of this transformative model.
This framework aligns naturally with the Kulliyyah of Medicine’s focus on competence and compassion. However, it calls for a deeper spiritual integration. Competence and compassion, as practised today, align with modern healthcare’s technical and ethical demands. Yet, to fully embody Islamic applied epistemology, these principles must be redefined: competence should prioritise physical wellness, spiritual well-being, and closeness to the Creator, while compassion should reflect a practitioner’s connection to the Creator, expressed through care for patients and those around them.
Medicine, guided by Islamic applied epistemology, becomes more than a profession—it becomes a sacred endeavour that alleviates suffering, promotes justice, and brings humanity closer to Allah. This approach offers a path forward for healthcare that truly serves humanity.
Disclaimer: This article was created with the assistance of ChatGPT. While it reflects the author’s thoughts, readers are encouraged to engage critically and consult referenced works for deeper insights.
Reference: Osman Bakar (2025). “Defining the Core Identity of a 21st-Century Islamic University,” The Muslim 500.