In the Islamic worldview, knowledge is not categorised into ‘Islamic’ and ‘secular.’ There is only one knowledge — al-‘ilm — bestowed by Allah, whether discovered through divine revelation (wahy) or human reason (‘aql). All beneficial knowledge should ultimately draw us closer to Allah, the All-Knowing. This article explores the field of epidemiology and biostatistics through this lens of divine unity, affirming that scientific inquiry and statistical reasoning are not merely technical disciplines, but pathways to understanding the patterns and wisdom embedded in Allah’s creation.
John M. Last (1988) defined epidemiology as “the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.” This definition highlights three core components: distribution, determinants, and application. Distribution refers to patterns — who is affected, where, and when. Determinants delve into the causes, risk factors, and protective factors. Application demands action — the use of findings to prevent and control diseases.
In Islam, observation of patterns in nature and society is encouraged. The Qur’an repeatedly invites reflection (tadabbur) on signs (ayat) in the universe and within ourselves. Understanding patterns of disease aligns with this call to contemplation and action. Epidemiology, therefore, becomes a means of fulfilling the Islamic obligation to protect life (hifz al-nafs), one of the five higher objectives of Shariah (maqasid al-shariah).
Sir Austin Bradford Hill (1965) introduced a set of principles to guide causal inference in epidemiology. His criteria — strength, consistency, temporality, biological gradient, plausibility, coherence, experiment, specificity, and analogy — serve as guides rather than strict rules.
Yet, we must recognise the epistemological humility within our methods. In regression models, confidence intervals, and Hill’s criteria, there is always an element of uncertainty. This aligns with the Islamic view that human knowledge is inherently limited. As Allah reminds us: “And you (O mankind) have not been given of knowledge except a little.” (Qur’an, Al-Isra’, 17:85)
Hence, we strive to understand cause and effect through careful observation and reasoning, but ultimately, we acknowledge that true causality is known only to Allah. Our frameworks are approximations — tools to aid, not final truths.
Historical accounts during the time of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and his companions demonstrate the application of outbreak control principles. One notable example is the plague (ṭā‘ūn) during the rule of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab. When the plague broke out in Syria, Umar decided not to enter the area, and advised others not to leave or enter — an early form of quarantine.
The Prophet ﷺ said: “If you hear of a plague in a land, do not enter it; and if it breaks out in a land where you are, do not leave it.” (Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith 5728; Sahih Muslim, Hadith 2219)
This hadith reflects core outbreak control principles such as isolation, movement restriction, and collective responsibility — key strategies in modern epidemiology.
Islam strongly advocates prevention. The Prophet ﷺ advised moderation in eating: “The son of Adam does not fill any vessel worse than his stomach. It is sufficient for the son of Adam to eat a few mouthfuls to keep him going. If he must do that (fill his stomach), then let him fill one-third with food, one-third with drink, and one-third with air.” (Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith 3349)
This guidance is preventive in nature and closely aligns with public health nutrition. Islam connects overindulgence and lack of restraint to the whispers of Shayṭān. Preventive health, therefore, is not just a matter of science, but a matter of spiritual discipline.
Islamic rituals incorporate hygiene into acts of worship. Ablution (wudu’), performed five times daily before prayer, involves washing the hands, mouth, nose, face, arms, head, and feet — the very areas associated with microbial transmission.
The Prophet ﷺ also instructed: “Cover your utensils and tie your water skins, for there is a night in the year when plague descends, and it does not pass an uncovered utensil or untied water skin without some of that plague descending into it.” (Sahih Muslim, Hadith 2014)
These teachings reflect divine wisdom in infection prevention, centuries before the discovery of microbes and germ theory.
Biostatistics provides us with essential tools to summarise data and draw meaningful inferences about populations from sample observations. Among its most powerful techniques is regression analysis, which allows us to explore and quantify the relationship between an outcome (dependent variable) and one or more explanatory (independent) variables.
The general form of a multiple linear regression model is:
y = β₀ + β₁x₁ + β₂x₂ + … + βₖxₖ + ε
In this equation:
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y represents the outcome or response variable we aim to predict or explain,
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x₁ to xₖ are the predictor variables that we believe influence the outcome,
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β₀ is the intercept, the expected value of y when all predictors are zero,
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β₁ to βₖ are the regression coefficients that quantify the effect of each predictor on the outcome, and
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ε is the error term, capturing the variability in y that the model cannot explain.
This error term is more than just a technical component; it is a profound acknowledgment of the limits of human understanding. Even with the most refined models and abundant data, there will always be elements of unpredictability — due to omitted variables, imprecise measurements, biological variation, or other unknown factors. The presence of this uncertainty is a built-in reminder that our knowledge is partial and conditional.
From an Islamic perspective, this aligns beautifully with the concept of epistemic humility. As Allah states in the Qur’an: “And you (O mankind) have not been given of knowledge except a little.” (Qur’an, Al-Isra’, 17:85)
Thus, while biostatistics helps us make informed decisions and uncover meaningful relationships, it also teaches us to recognise the boundaries of what we can know. The error term symbolises the divine reality — that ultimate knowledge lies only with Allah. It invites us to pursue knowledge responsibly, with sincerity, but never with arrogance.
This concept is further reinforced in the Qur’an: “And above every possessor of knowledge is one [more] knowing.” (Qur’an, Yusuf, 12:76)
Every estimate, statistical model, and inference must be grounded in this awareness. We can model, measure, and approximate, but only Allah knows the unseen, the future, and the full complexity of creation. Biostatistics, therefore, is not only a scientific tool but also a spiritual exercise in recognising our role as seekers of knowledge, always dependent on the One who knows all.
Epidemiology and biostatistics, when viewed through the Islamic perspective of tawḥīd (oneness of Allah), are not detached from faith but are deeply connected to it. These sciences offer not just understanding but also tools to protect life, serve society, and fulfil the trust placed upon us as khalifah (stewards) on Earth. By unifying rational inquiry with spiritual awareness, we find that knowledge — whether derived from revelation or observation — is ultimately from the same source. Through this lens, our pursuit of health knowledge becomes a journey toward Allah.
References
1. Last, J. M. (1988). A Dictionary of Epidemiology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
2. Hill, A. B. (1965). The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 58(5), 295–300.
3. The Noble Qur’an, Surah Al-Isra’ (17:85), Surah Yusuf (12:76).
4. Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 76, Hadith 5728.
5. Sahih Muslim, Book 39, Hadith 2219; Book 23, Hadith 2014.
6. Sunan Ibn Majah, Book 29, Hadith 3349.
7. Al-Ghazali, I. H. Ihya Ulum al-Din – On the virtues of knowledge and its relation to action and worship.
8. Nasr, S. H. (1992). Science and Civilization in Islam. Harvard University Press.