Leadership in medicine does not begin with a title, an appointment, or a position of authority. It begins the moment a person chooses to serve others through the profession of medicine. From that point onwards, every doctor carries leadership responsibilities, whether visible or not, formal or informal, recognised or unnoticed. Leadership is not something added to a medical career, it is woven into it and practised daily across a lifetime.
Competence is the head of leadership. A doctor who leads must first be able to do, not merely instruct. Competence allows a leader to think clearly, decide wisely, and act safely. Leadership without competence erodes trust and places others at risk. In the life of a doctor, competence is practised continuously. As a medical student, it is shown through preparation for ward rounds, knowing one’s patient thoroughly, taking responsibility for learning, and helping peers understand without being asked. As a house officer or junior doctor, competence is demonstrated by performing the procedures one expects others to do, personally checking investigations, recognising limitations early, and seeking senior input before harm occurs. As a specialist or senior doctor, competence means remaining clinically relevant, staying updated with evidence, guiding complex cases by example, and making sound decisions during uncertainty. Competence is not optional, it is part of the amanah entrusted to every doctor.
Compassion is the heart of leadership. Leadership is not about being served, it is about serving. Compassion allows a leader to understand the people they serve before making decisions that affect them. In the daily life of a doctor, compassion begins with patients. It is expressed by listening before deciding, explaining diagnoses and plans even when time is limited, and recognising fear, pain, and uncertainty alongside clinical findings. Compassion extends to colleagues and healthcare workers. It is shown by understanding workload and fatigue, correcting mistakes privately rather than humiliating publicly, supporting nurses and allied health professionals, and fostering a safe working environment. In leadership roles, compassion means understanding the impact of policies on people before implementing change, doing the best sincerely without seeking recognition, and remembering that recognition, if it comes, is only a bonus. Without compassion, leadership becomes mechanical and disconnected from those it is meant to serve.
Conscience is the soul of leadership. It is the inner compass that keeps a doctor accountable to Allah above all else. Leadership guided by conscience requires moral courage and clarity. In a doctor’s life, conscience is tested in moments of pressure and power. It is practised when patient safety is prioritised despite inconvenience, when one speaks up against unsafe practices, and when ethical principles are upheld even at personal cost. As authority increases, conscience is reflected in resisting misuse of power, acting with integrity when no one is watching, and remaining sincere when recognition or reward is absent. Towards the later stages of leadership roles, conscience is shown by preparing successors, mentoring juniors, and being ready to let go of position willingly. Leadership is temporary, accountability is not.
Leadership as a doctor is not measured by how long one holds power or how many titles one accumulates. It is measured by how faithfully the trust was carried across a lifetime of service. When competence guides the head, compassion shapes the heart, and conscience anchors the soul, leadership becomes not only effective, but meaningful and sincere. This is leadership that honours the profession, serves humanity, and seeks only the acceptance of Allah.
As someone who works in education, I often think about how AI is changing the way we learn and teach. Artificial intelligence has become part of our daily routine, from helping us write to generating art or analysing data. It makes things faster and more convenient, but I sometimes wonder if it also makes us forget what being human really means. Professor Osman Bakar, in his recent essay Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Creative Thinking: A Reflection from Islamic Perspective (2025), raises the same concern. He reminds us that the question is not how powerful AI can become, but how wisely we decide to use it.
He writes that AI, like all forms of knowledge, carries both benefit and harm. It can stimulate creativity and make learning more accessible, but it can also weaken our capacity for deep thought, especially when we let machines do the thinking for us. He shares Sweden’s experience of moving education from printed textbooks to digital tools, which coincided with a decline in reading comprehension and overall student well-being. The lesson is clear: technology is useful, but it is not neutral. It shapes how we think and who we become.
In Islam, knowledge is also never neutral. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) taught us to seek ‘ilm naf‘, or beneficial knowledge, and to seek refuge from unbeneficial knowledge. This means that knowledge becomes valuable only when it improves the human being, both morally and spiritually. Professor Osman argues that AI should be guided by this same principle. It must help us grow in wisdom and compassion, not just in productivity or speed.
He also reminds us to keep AI in its proper place. The machine can process information, but it cannot determine what is good or right. Only humans, guided by intellect (‘aql) and spirit (ruh), can make that judgment. AI should therefore assist us in developing creativity and critical thinking, not replace them. If we rely too heavily on technology to think for us, we risk losing our sense of purpose and accountability.
Another point he makes is about balance. While digital tools can enrich education, they should not completely replace traditional and physical forms of learning. Reading a printed book, having a real conversation, or reflecting quietly on what we have learned are still vital experiences that shape our character. Over-digitalisation may make learning more efficient, but it can also make it shallow. Without space for empathy, humility, and reflection, education loses its human soul.
The heart of Professor Osman’s idea is the unity between intellect and spirituality. True creativity, he says, happens when the mind and the soul work together. Thinking without spirituality becomes cold and mechanical. Spirituality without thinking can become blind and directionless. When both are integrated, creativity becomes meaningful, ethical, and transformative. In that sense, AI can be a tool that helps us think better, as long as we use it with moral awareness and spiritual grounding.
For Muslim educators, researchers, and students, this has real implications. We need to design AI applications that serve higher goals. AI should help us address issues that truly matter, such as improving public health, promoting justice, caring for the environment, and nurturing compassion. It should not exist simply to make us faster or wealthier. Ethical principles drawn from maqasid al-shariah (the objectives of Islamic law) should guide how we create and use technology, ensuring it protects life, intellect, faith, lineage, and property.
At the end of his essay, Professor Osman quotes a hadith stating that the world will not end until no one remembers God. It is a profound reminder that remembrance of the Divine is the foundation of human existence. Without that remembrance, all our progress loses meaning. In the same way, if AI advances but humanity forgets its spiritual purpose, we will end up with brilliant machines and empty hearts.
Perhaps the real question for our time is not how intelligent AI can become, but how wise we can remain while using it. Technology will continue to evolve, but our task is to ensure it serves what is good, just, and beneficial. As Professor Osman beautifully reminds us, knowledge must be both true and good. AI, too, must follow that path.
So, as generative tools like ChatGPT become part of our daily thinking and writing, how can we really adapt them to nurture not only intelligence but also conscience and compassion?
Reference
Bakar, O. (2025). Artificial intelligence and the future of creative thinking: A reflection from Islamic perspective. In The Muslim 500, 2025 Edition. The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre. https://themuslim500.com/2025-edition/guest-contributions-2025/artificial-intelligence-and-the-future-of-creative-thinking-a-reflection-from-islamic-perspective/
In the history of psychiatric research, few studies have made an impact as profound as David Rosenhan’s 1973 paper, “On Being Sane in Insane Places.” It challenged the validity of psychiatric diagnosis and exposed the depersonalisation of patients in mental hospitals. Decades later, journalist Susannah Cahalan revisited the same study in her 2019 book, The Great Pretender, only to uncover troubling questions about its accuracy and documentation. Together, their work presents more than a disagreement. It is a reminder that no matter how compelling a message may be, research must rest on a foundation of reliable records and sound methodology.
Rosenhan’s Experiment
Rosenhan led a group of eight pseudopatients who each presented themselves at different psychiatric hospitals claiming to hear voices. Once admitted, they behaved entirely normally and reported no further symptoms. Despite this, all were diagnosed with serious mental illnesses, mostly schizophrenia, and were prescribed strong antipsychotic medication. The average hospital stay was 19 days, with one patient held for 52 days. None were identified by staff as imposters, although other patients often suspected the truth.
In a second phase, a hospital challenged Rosenhan to send more pseudopatients as a test of their ability to detect imposters. Over the following months, the staff identified 41 such individuals. In reality, Rosenhan had sent no one. This revealed how psychiatric labels could cloud judgement and foster error.
The study was published in Science and quickly became one of the most influential critiques of psychiatry. It led to greater scrutiny of mental health institutions, the development of new diagnostic manuals, and the closure of many asylums.
Cahalan’s Re-examination
Susannah Cahalan approached Rosenhan’s study with admiration, but her investigative journey revealed serious flaws. Despite extensive effort, she was only able to locate two of the supposed eight pseudopatients. The others could not be verified. Hospital records, raw data, and detailed transcripts were either missing or had never been released. Even more concerning, one of the individuals who had taken part described their experience positively, in contrast to Rosenhan’s bleak narrative.
Cahalan also discovered an unpublished manuscript written by Rosenhan. It contained inconsistencies and altered case details, raising concerns that parts of the study may have been exaggerated or fictionalised. This lack of transparency stood in sharp contrast to the study’s enduring influence.
Scientific Integrity
Rosenhan’s core argument about the dangers of psychiatric labelling was valid. However, the absence of clear documentation raises questions about the reliability of his findings. The study lacked:
Clear and replicable methodology Comprehensive records and raw data Transparency in patient selection and hospital procedures
Scientific research depends on verifiability. Without access to original data, no study can be replicated or properly critiqued. Rosenhan’s failure to preserve and share such records weakens the credibility of what was once considered a foundational piece of psychiatric literature.
Why This Still Matters
The debate between Rosenhan and Cahalan is not only about psychiatry. It highlights a broader concern within science: the need for rigorous, accountable research practices. Especially in fields that affect people’s lives so directly, such as mental health, ethical research must be rooted in truth and open to scrutiny.
Public trust in science depends not only on powerful stories, but on the integrity of the research behind them. Narrative alone cannot replace evidence. Researchers must ensure that their work can withstand examination, even many years after it is published.
Conclusion
Rosenhan’s study brought attention to real issues in mental health care, and Cahalan’s investigation reminded us that lasting change must be based on fact, not fiction. Their contrasting accounts demonstrate that bold claims require careful evidence. Proper documentation, transparent methods, and reproducibility are not optional features of good science. They are its very foundation. Without them, the line between truth and assumption becomes dangerously unclear.
References
Cahalan, S. (2019). The Great Pretender: The Undercover Mission That Changed Our Understanding of Madness. New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing.
Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179(4070), 250–258. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.179.4070.250
Spiegel, A. (2008, July 31). On being sane in insane places: Revisiting a classic study. NPR. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93646216
Carey, B. (2019, November 27). The Rosenhan experiment: On being sane in insane places. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/27/books/review/the-great-pretender-susannah-cahalan.html
The modern university, especially in the fields of science and medicine, often functions within a paradigm that disconnects knowledge from values, science from ethics, and intellect from faith. This fragmented epistemology, rooted in secular modernity, results in professionals who are technically proficient but morally and spiritually unmoored. In the Muslim world, this disjunction has precipitated a crisis of meaning in education.
The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), since its inception, has sought to address this crisis through the vision of Islamisation of Human Knowledge (IoHK). First conceptualised by Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas and institutionalised by IIUM’s early leadership, especially the late Tan Sri Professor Dr. Mohammad Kamal Hassan, the founding Rector, IoHK proposes that all branches of knowledge must be critically assessed, purified, and realigned with Islamic values, ethics, and metaphysical worldview.
This foundational vision has evolved. Under the guidance of Professor Emeritus Datuk Dr. Osman Bakar, the current Rector of IIUM, the process of Islamisation is being deepened through the framework of Tawhidic Epistemology (TE). TE serves not only as a tool for knowledge reform but also as a worldview that re-centres all human inquiry on tawhid, the oneness of Allah.
In the Kulliyyah of Medicine (KOM), this renewed vision is operationalised through seven TE principles, which guide the holistic development of future Muslim doctors, competent in skill, rich in character, and conscious of divine accountability.
Tawhidic Epistemology – Rebuilding the Unity of Knowledge
Tawhidic Epistemology asserts that all knowledge, whether revealed (naqli) or acquired through reason (aqli), emanates from a single divine source. It rejects the artificial division between “religious” and “secular” knowledge and calls instead for a unified understanding of reality, rooted in tawhid.
TE addresses the intellectual fragmentation of modern education by emphasising:
The unity of truth under the oneness of Allah
The integration of scientific inquiry with spiritual ethics
A holistic view of the human being as a physical, moral, intellectual, and spiritual entity
This philosophy underpins the contemporary direction of IIUM. Rector Osman Bakar’s notion of the Tawhidic Mind, Ummatic Mind, and Ummatic Excellence encapsulates a developmental framework in which students are nurtured to become not only learned individuals but ethical leaders and khalifahs of Allah.
Seven Principles of Tawhidic Epistemology in Medical Education
1. Unify Divine Knowledge
Students are taught that the Qur’an, Prophetic traditions, and empirical knowledge are not in conflict but are harmonious components of a unified truth.
Example 1: In organ transplantation modules, students learn both the medical criteria and the ethical rulings from Islamic jurisprudence, fostering an integrated approach to decision-making.
Example 2: In anaesthesiology, students examine the issue of euthanasia by exploring both biomedical perspectives, such as the management of end-of-life pain and palliative sedation and Islamic ethical positions, which uphold the sanctity of life and prohibit any form of deliberate life-ending interventions. This integrative teaching helps students distinguish between relieving suffering and violating divine principles regarding life and death.
2. Uphold Ethical Trust
Knowledge is an amanah, a trust from Allah. This principle instils sincerity, fairness, and accountability as part of the student’s ethical compass.
Example 1: Research ethics and professional conduct are framed as spiritual obligations, not merely institutional requirements. Students are taught that informed consent, avoiding plagiarism, and honest data reporting are forms of worship when done with integrity and consciousness of divine accountability.
Example 2: In clinical practice, maintaining patient privacy and dignity is emphasised as both a professional and spiritual duty. For example, when examining patients of the opposite gender, students are trained to use a chaperone, lower their gaze, and seek consent respectfully, upholding Islamic adab (etiquette) while fulfilling clinical responsibilities.
3. Pursue Higher Purpose
Through the Ummatic Mind, students are aligned with the maqasid al-shariah (higher objectives of Islamic law), such as the preservation of life, intellect, and faith. Medical education is framed not merely as skill acquisition, but as a sacred journey that integrates clinical excellence with spiritual awareness.
Example 1: The intention behind treating patients is not only to preserve life and advance knowledge in medicine, but also to serve as a means of drawing both the caregiver and the patient closer to Allah. This transforms everyday clinical tasks into acts of worship and service to humanity.
Example 2: In palliative care training, students are taught to go beyond symptom control by addressing the emotional, psychological, and spiritual dimensions of dying. Upholding dignity at the end of life becomes an act of compassion and a reflection of the Islamic value of mercy (rahmah).
4. Contribute Meaningful Impact
Knowledge must serve the ummah and uplift the marginalised. Learning is not solely for personal success, but for advancing social justice, improving equity, and fulfilling the duty of khilafah (stewardship) on Earth.
Example: During the community medicine posting, students engage in health outreach activities in underserved and remote areas. These efforts, which include screening programmes, health education, and preventive care, go beyond academic fulfilment. They are expressions of the Islamic imperative to use knowledge in the service of others, especially the vulnerable and neglected.
5. Develop Professional Mastery
Professional mastery in medicine demands the structured attainment of competencies, not only in clinical knowledge and technical skills but also in communication, decision-making, and professionalism. Within the Tawhidic framework, competence is pursued as an obligation (fard) and a form of amanah (trust), to ensure safe, effective, and ethical care.
Example: The curriculum is designed to ensure students achieve clearly defined learning outcomes and clinical competencies, including history-taking, examination, procedural skills, and clinical judgement. These are continuously assessed through workplace-based methods and objective clinical examinations, ensuring graduates are both capable and accountable in fulfilling their professional responsibilities.
6. Embody Compassionate Care
Inspired by the divine attribute of rahmah (mercy), compassion in medical practice is seen as a form of renewed empathy that is conscious, purposeful, and ethically grounded. It involves a sincere commitment to alleviate suffering, preserve human dignity, and foster meaningful human connections.
Example: Communication training emphasises emotional intelligence and empathy, especially in situations such as delivering difficult news or managing patients with chronic and terminal illnesses. Students are taught to listen attentively, respond sincerely, and maintain a respectful presence. This compassionate approach extends beyond patients, fostering kindness and mutual respect in interactions with colleagues, healthcare staff, and the wider medical team.
7. Practice Moral Integrity
Spiritual growth must be accompanied by a strong moral compass that guides both personal and professional conduct. This principle draws upon the concepts of ihsan (excellence in worship and character) and tazkiyah (purification of the soul), nurturing sincerity, truthfulness, and ethical discipline in all aspects of life.
Example: Students are taught that integrity applies to every action, from being honest in assignments and examinations to being truthful in logbooks and research reports. For staff, this extends to making accurate claims and fulfilling responsibilities with trust and fairness. Upholding Islamic adab includes maintaining respectful and appropriate interactions across genders, observing Shariah-compliant boundaries in communication and behaviour. Moral integrity is nurtured not only for personal salvation but also to uphold public trust and professionalism in medicine.
Islamisation of Knowledge – Reforming the Content
While TE provides the worldview, Islamisation of Knowledge remains the methodological backbone of IIUM’s academic reform. It aims to critique, filter, and reconstruct modern knowledge according to Islamic ethical and ontological principles.
At KOM, this includes:
Evaluating medical knowledge through the lens of Shariah and ethics
Reintroducing Islamic concepts into contemporary discourse on health
Creating new integrative models of care based on the Islamic view of the human being
Examples:
Mental health modules include nafs, qalb, and fitrah alongside DSM-based diagnosis.
Public health courses incorporate maqasid-oriented strategies.
Students conduct research exploring the intersection of Islamic ethics and epidemiology.
Tawhidisation and Islamisation – Complementary Approaches
Aspect
Tawhidic Epistemology
Islamisation of Knowledge
Nature
Foundational worldview based on tawhid
Methodological process for content reform
Focus
How knowledge is sourced, internalised, and valued
How knowledge is critiqued, refined, and applied
Function
Shapes the learner’s consciousness and ethical disposition
Shapes the curriculum and scholarly output
Application
Seven TE principles guide the values and learning culture
Islamised content in clinical, behavioural, and social sciences
Conclusion
The journey of IIUM, from its Islamisation of knowledge focus to its expansion into Tawhidic Epistemology, reflects a continuous pursuit of holistic and purposeful education. These are not competing philosophies, but rather stages in the development of an Islamic intellectual tradition that seeks to integrate revelation, reason, and reality.
In medical education, this integration results in a curriculum that goes beyond technical training. At KOM, Tawhidic Epistemology influences the mindset. Islamisation of Knowledge reforms the curriculum content. Together, they guide the formation of doctors who are technically skilled, spiritually aware, and socially responsible.
This represents a medicine with a soul. It signifies a return to the Islamic civilisation’s tradition of learning that heals both the body and the spirit, and a renewal of education as a sacred trust to be fulfilled in the service of Allah and humanity.
References
Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1978). Islam and secularism. Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia.
Bakar, O. (2022). Tawhid and science: Islamic perspectives on religion and science. Penerbit UTM Press.
Hassan, M. K. (1981). A return to the Qur’anic paradigm of development and its implications for education policy and the curriculum. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization.
Nasr, S. H. (1968). Science and civilization in Islam. Harvard University Press.
Rahman, F. (1982). Islam and modernity: Transformation of an intellectual tradition. University of Chicago Press.
Civilisation has long been a subject of study, both for its material achievements and its moral dimensions. From an Islamic perspective, civilisations are not accidental outcomes of human progress, but part of a divine plan in which nations, tribes, and communities arise to fulfil higher purposes. Their existence offers opportunities for humanity to cooperate, recognise divine signs, and establish justice. The rise and fall of civilisations, recorded both in historical chronicles and in the Qur’an, provide enduring lessons on the relationship between spiritual values and societal success.
A civilisation can be defined as a society that has reached an advanced stage of development in its social, political, and cultural institutions. Such societies are characterised by surplus food production, allowing for the division of labour and economic complexity. They establish organised governments and religious systems, and they develop writing to preserve knowledge across generations. Major civilisations arose along rivers that supported agriculture and trade, such as Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates, Ancient Egypt along the Nile, the Indus Valley, and Ancient China along the Huang He. These civilisations left behind impressive legacies in architecture, law, science, and the arts. Yet, their true greatness, from an Islamic viewpoint, is measured by their adherence to divine principles rather than material achievements alone.
The Qur’an teaches that mankind originated as a single community, united in worship and purpose, before differences arose. These differences gave rise to nations and tribes, not for division or conflict, but so that people might learn from one another and recognise the signs of their Creator. As stated in Al-Hujurat: 13, diversity in human societies is a deliberate act of divine wisdom, meant to inspire mutual benefit and cooperation. Allah’s plan for humanity included the rise of civilisations to provide structure for human life and a setting for the moral and spiritual testing of individuals and communities.
To guide civilisations on the right path, Allah sent prophets to every nation. These messengers called their people to monotheism (Tawhid), justice, and righteousness. Their messages, though suited to the specific needs and circumstances of their communities, consistently emphasised the worship of Allah alone and the obligation to uphold moral values. The prophets’ role extended beyond personal piety; they provided guidance for social order, economic justice, and political integrity, ensuring that civilisations could thrive both materially and spiritually.
The reflections of major Islamic scholars further deepen this understanding. Ibn Khaldun described civilisation as thriving on moral strength, justice, and solidarity (asabiyyah), warning that decline begins with injustice, luxury, and moral decay. Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas highlighted that true civilisation is rooted in knowledge from divine revelation, aiming for adab (proper conduct) and the realisation of truth and justice. Malik Bennabi viewed civilisation as the sum of moral, material, and spiritual components, emphasising that decline starts with intellectual stagnation and moral decay. Sayyid Qutb saw Islamic civilisation as built upon submission to Allah and the establishment of justice and moral leadership. These perspectives show that in Islam, the success of a civilisation depends on its adherence to divine guidance and its commitment to justice, truth, and moral integrity.
History offers numerous examples of how civilisations rose and fell in connection with their acceptance or rejection of divine guidance. The people of Nuh rejected his call and were destroyed by a flood. The powerful civilisation of ‘Ad, known for its architectural feats, fell after turning away from the message of Hud. Thamud, a society skilled in carving homes from stone, faced ruin after defying the warnings of Salih and harming the she-camel sent as a divine sign. Ibrahim challenged the idolatry of Ur in Mesopotamia, confronting the tyranny of Namrud. Musa confronted the Pharaoh of Egypt, who epitomised oppression and arrogance. Muhammad, the final messenger, brought the universal message of Islam to unify all humanity under the worship of Allah and the principles of justice and compassion.
Prophet
Approximate period
Western period
Adam (AS)
~10,000–5,000 BCE
Prehistory (Stone Age, early Neolithic)
Idris (AS)
~5,000–4,000 BCE
Late prehistory (early settlements, proto-writing)
Nuh (AS)
~3,500–3,000 BCE
Transition to ancient history (early Mesopotamian civilisation)
Hud (AS)
~2,500 BCE
Ancient history (Bronze Age, Sumer, Akkad)
Salih (AS)
~2,400 BCE
Ancient history
Ibrahim (AS)
~2,000 BCE
Ancient history (Ur, Mesopotamia, Bronze Age)
Lut (AS)
~2,000 BCE
Ancient history
Ismail (AS)
~2,000 BCE
Ancient history
Ishaq (AS)
~1,900 BCE
Ancient history
Yaqub (AS)
~1,800 BCE
Ancient history
Yusuf (AS)
~1,750 BCE
Ancient history (Middle Kingdom Egypt)
Musa (AS)
~1,300 BCE
Ancient history (New Kingdom Egypt)
Dawud (AS)
~1,000 BCE
Ancient history (Iron Age, early kingdoms)
Sulaiman (AS)
~970 BCE
Ancient history
Ilyas (AS)
~850 BCE
Ancient history
Yunus (AS)
~800 BCE
Ancient history (Assyrian Empire)
Zakariya (AS)
~5 BCE
Ancient history (Roman Empire period)
Isa (AS)
~0 CE
Ancient history
Muhammad (SAW)
570–632 CE
Medieval history (early Islamic period)
The rise and fall of these civilisations reflect a broader cycle seen throughout history: growth, stability, and decline. Civilisations grow through adherence to truth, justice, and divine values. They achieve stability by building sound institutions and spreading beneficial knowledge. Over time, however, many fall into complacency, corruption, and materialism, leading to internal decay and eventual collapse. The Qur’anic accounts of past nations serve as reminders that moral and spiritual decay, more than external enemies, is what undermines the foundations of a civilisation.
While Western historians often categorise history into prehistory, ancient history, medieval history, and modern history based on material culture and technological developments, the Islamic perspective focuses on the presence or absence of divine guidance. For example, what the West classifies as prehistory includes the time of Adam and Idris, while ancient history encompasses the periods of Nuh, Ibrahim, and Musa. The time of Muhammad marks the transition into what Western scholars consider the medieval period. In Islamic thought, the moral and spiritual dimensions of these eras are what give them significance.
The lessons drawn from the study of civilisations are as relevant today as they were in ancient times. Societies thrive when they base their institutions on truth, justice, and compassion, and when they recognise their responsibility to the Creator and to one another. Conversely, when civilisations become consumed by oppression, injustice, and the pursuit of worldly gains at the expense of moral integrity, they set themselves on a path to decline. The study of history, therefore, is not merely an academic exercise but a source of guidance for building a just and enduring society.
References
Qur’an: Al-Baqarah 213, Al-Hujurat 13, Al-A’raf 73-79, Al-Anbiya 69, Al-Fajr 1-14 Ibn Kathir. Stories of the Prophets (Qasas al-Anbiya). Islamicity. Interactive Timeline of Prophets. https://www.islamicity.org/13628/timeline-of-the-prophets/ Kasule, O. (2004). Islamic Medical Resources. http://omarkasule.tripod.com Ibn Khaldun. (1967). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (F. Rosenthal, Trans.). Princeton University Press. Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1978). Islam and Secularism. Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia (ABIM). Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1995). Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). Bennabi, M. (1984). The Question of Culture. Islamic Research Institute. Bennabi, M. (2013). Islam in History and Society (H. Abdel-Malek, Trans.). Islamic Book Trust. Qutb, S. (2006). Milestones (A. B. al-Mehri, Trans.). Maktabah Booksellers and Publishers.